DEVELOPING
THE SPIRIT OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Umar
Farouk
Jurusan Administrasi Niaga, Politeknik Negeri
Semarang
Jl. Prof.H.Sudarto, SH, Tembalang, Kotak Pos
6199/SMS Semarang 50061
ABSTRACT
Recently
the news about radicalism, terrorism, social conflict et cetera have appeared
in many printed and elcetronic media. In spite of the spirit to improve the
quality of human communication in the global era, this fact makes most people
worried of the future of international or intercultural communication. Briefly this article discusses ethnocentrism,
stereotype, world view, belief system, normative values, and attitude as the
factors which can be the constraints in developing intercultural communication.
Some historical overview relating to the issue of intercultural communication
is also highlighted.
Keywords:
communication, culture, ethnocentrism, stereotype, world view, belief,
normative values, attitude
INTRODUCTION
Interaction among human beings, as we understand, is
completely complicated. Very often
people fail to communicate effectively both for the sake of their personal
purposes and also for their business purposes. In daily life they often meet friends,
neighbours, sellers in markets, parents and families, who surprisingly or
unsuprisingly cannot perceive the delivered message correctly and
proportionally so that it avoids misunderstanding. In business situation, the
case seems to be similar. Most
businessmen are not successful to finish negotiations professionally, handle
meetings effectively to achieve right
decisions in line with the proposed agenda, respond a telephone call in a good
manner and catch the received message in the right way.
Regarding the above-mentioned fenomena of daily and
business communication, it is urgent to learn communication more thoroughly and
seriously. The reason is good communication skills can significantly support
success in every field of life. In
personal or individual life, it is obvious that those who acquire better
comunication skills will win a friendship compared to those with worse
communication skills. In business environment managers with excellent
communication skills will, of course, run their business successfully because
as it is widely known, communication is the backbone of management. Effective management and leadership depends
on effective communication.
It seems obvious that there are many factors which
create communication barriers or constraints (many experts of communication use
the term noises to represent the
phenomena) Keith Davis, Hani Handoko,
and Judith Dwyer are the examples, to mention a few.
Below, are the discussions about the nature of
communication, some communication noises, and factors influencing communication
effectiveness, with the focus on the urgency of intercultural communication in
the era of globalization.
COMMUNICATION
DEFINED
Go back to the fundamental understanding of
definitions of communication put forward by some experts, among others, Keith
Davis, Hani Handoko, and Judith Dwyer, firstly it should be declared and clarified that those
definitions are basically similar and accommodate all communication components
or phenomena of communication process.
Secondly, the different definitions only reflect the perspective of
those experts in trying to give explanation about communication process resulting
in giving different emphasis on certain communication issues in their
respective definitions.
Keith Davis (1981: 458)states that communication is
a process of transferring information to
get understanding. This definition looks simple and general
without explicitely mentioning the role of communicators and communicants, the
media used, the feedback appeared, and the disturbing noise. The focus of
Davis’s definition is on the message. Hani Handoko (Zuhdi, 2011: 2) states that
communication is a process of transferring information to get understanding
involving non verbal language. Handoko’s definition looks a little bit
different from Davis’s in that his definition clearly also gives attention on
the role of non verbal language. The special attention on non verbal langugage
surprisingly indicates the domination of non verbal language in a communication
process as communication researchers show in their research findings. It is widely known that more than 65% of communication
effectiveness is influenced by non verbal language and only less than 35% is
influenced by verbal language. Handoko’s
definition makes us more aware of the importance of non verbal languagein spite
of our carelessness of functioning it.
Many people are still of the opinion that communication means verbal
language. Communication up to this
extent is considered to be a real communication if non verbal languages are
effectively manipulated. Judith Dwyer
(Zuhdi, 2011: 2-3) comes with a more substantial deffinition of communication,
he says that communication can be considered as communication if there is a
change of behaviour of the communicants receiving a message. It is not enough, according to him, if in a
communication process communicants understand both verbal and non verbal
language of a communicator but he or she has no intention to obey or follow
what is expected by the communicator. In other words, if there is a positive
response or feedback not only verbally but more importantly by his or her
action, then a communication can be regarded as a true communication.
It seems that Dwyer’s definition is very realistic
in terms of its fundamental understanding in our communication life. For
example, we give instruction to an employee in our company, and he listen to us. He understands
what we say because he speaks the same language but he only listens and not
doing anything, of course, it makes us scarry or feel unhappy. What we expect
is he does what we want him to do. This fact, arises a question: Why this
happens?
CULTURAL
PERCEPTION
Keith Davis (Riyanto, Budi Utaminingtyas, and
Tripriyo, 1996: 8-9) explains eight factor influencing perception, namely self concept, experience, emotion, feeling,
family, social values, hallo effect, and culture. These factors can make a
communicator and a communicant have different interpretation to a delivered and
received message, that can take a risk of misunderstanding. In this short
article, only cultural factor is discussed with the purpose to discuss more
thoroughly about the above-mentioned topic or title.
What is culture? Why shoud we understand other’s
culture in communication? Those are two
questions that must be answered in this discussion. Let us begin the discussion
with a funny story but gives a serious impact on communication. It happened in 1962, when the US President,
John F Kennedy visited Mexican President, Adolfo Lopez Meteos. On the way, on a presidential car, to the
Mexican presidential Palace, Kennedy looked at Meteos’s wristwatch, and then
he said: “ What a wonderful wristwatch you have, Mr. President!”. He
spoke sincerely and anthusiastically while smiling. Listening to this admiration, spontaneously
Meteos gave the wristwatch to Kennedy. He said: “This is yours Mr. President!”
while releasing it from his hand.
Kennedy was extremely surprised and ashamed of what was happening. He
never thought that Meteos would give his wristwatch because of his admiration.
Meteos then said to him:” Our tradition teaches us to give everything which
everyone likes or loves. So, this wristwach is yours, Mr. President!”. Kennedy
unfortunately had to receive this unexpected gift although he felt
inconvinient. Some moments passed. In spite of small and informal conversation
in the car, Meteos said to Kennedy:” You are a lucky President, you have a
pretty First Lady”. Hearing this admiration Kennedy spontaneously said: “Mr.
President, please, take this wristwatch. I do not need it” (Mulyana and
Rakhmat, 2010: v).
Let take another example, when we ride on an urban,
a big and long bus used as public transport in Australia, we often see
Australian teenagers kiss their girl friends demonstratively in front of people
or in public area. This is impolite and
amoral according to Indonesians. On the
otherway round, Indonesians often begin a conversation in an urban by asking
names, family, address, marital status, number of children, job and so on to
Australians sitting in their side, which is considered to be impolite and nosy.
It often creates misunderstanding.
Once, a man from Indonesia went to Arab Saudi to
practice pilgrimage. When he landed from
an airplane in Jeddah, an Arabian man, Syaikh, who was rensponsible for his
accommodation during the pilgrimage, kissed his cheeks as the symbol of respect
and honour. But, what happened, then? The Indonesian felt unhappy, scarry, and
felt worried. He thought that the Arabian was a homo-sexual. He was culturally
shocked.
For a Japanese pointing a hand to stomach symbolizes
the intention of suicide but for Americans the willing of suicide is expressed by pointing the
forefinger to the forehead. Whereas for
people of New Guenia suicide is non verbally symbolized by putting fingers like
the way someone puts a knife on his neck. Indonesians do the same way.
So, cultural differences become a serious noise in
everyone’s communication. If there is no solution given, it can make
intercultural communication unbeneficial or unproductive. Therefore, it is very crucial to seek for the
way how to solve these cultural constraints in communication.
WAYS TO
CREATE INTERCULTURAL UNDERSTANDING
The word create
semiotically has subtle different meaning from the word make. Create means developing something into exiistence which is
originally new. Make, on the other hand, does not mean something new but it
reflects the meaning of developing something which has been made before. Thus,
it can be a repetition of a production process. To create something, we need
what iscalled creativity. To be creative,
innovation in thinking process is needed. So, some serious and
continuous efforts must be carried out.
It can be only successfully done supposed someone has a deep commitment
to open global communication with all people of different cultural backgrounds
to get mutual understanding. This is what is called intercultural
communication. More obviously intercultural communication can be defined as a form of communication that aims to share information
across different cultures and social groups. It is used to describe the wide
range of communication processes and problems that naturally appear within an
organization or social context made up of individuals from different religious,
social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds. Intercultural communication is
sometimes used synonymously with cross-cultural communication, . In this sense it seeks to understand how
people from different countries and cultures act, communicate and perceive the world around them.(Wikipedia, 9 March,
2015). To
achieve all these, here are some recommended points or ways (Mulyana and
Rakhmat, 2010: 26, 28) to think about:
a. Be
aware of ethnocentrism
It is a general tendency happening in all parts of
the world, that people generally perceive what others do on the basis of their
own cultural values. Some aspects of culture, which are fortunately the same or
similar do not create any problems but some of it, whcih are unfortunately
different can rise serious and even fatal problems among them. This phenomenon
is called as ethnocentrism. To develop a
conducive and successful communication, ethnocentrism must be avoided. People should develop a new philosophy in
their intercultural communication, that all people in the world have the rights
to express themselves in their own cultural expressions. Cultural prejudices
have no rights to judge that people are right or wrong, polite or impolite,
civilized or uncivilized because mutual communication among human beings will
happen on the condition that all people
give symphaty and emphaty to others. They should try to understand why people
are different and this is a mystery why God creates it very fantastically.
Giving respect to others’ culture reflects an appreciation to God’s creation
and mightyness.
It is not necessarily to repeat the dark history of
Hitler in Germany and Nazi in Italy of which a nation kills another nation with
hatred and arrogancy. No respect and understanding towards mankind.
Intercultural communication relies on the spirit of humanism and egality of
human beings apart from their races, religions, culture, ethnicity at cetera.
The spirit of friendship and sincere relationship will make mutual
intercultural communication possible.
Ethnocentrism can take place in a multi racial
country or among different countries, a region in a multi ethnic country and
other areas in which people are culturally different. In Indonesia, for
instance, there was a conllict between Madurese and Dayakese. In America, in
the past time there was a war between Europeans and Indians. Also Blacks and Whites in Social War. In
smaller cultural groups of society often happens social conflicts such as what
happened between Ahmadiyah and Sunni people in some cities in Indonesia and
Pakistan. In India Sikh and other sects of religions often involve in a serious
conflict. Conflicts among Sunni and
Syiah in Iran and Irak, as we know, almost happen along the year.
Ethnocentrism in some cases not only relates to
belief in religions but also chauvinism. Groups of ethnics in some parts of the
world, as noted in history, feel that their ethnicity has been created the most
superior. Jews feel the most superior in
the world even up to today. They have been created as the most superior
race. It is their belief and they teach
this belief through generations. In the
other parts of the world, Chinese feel that they have the greatest culture.
There is no other cultures that can compete the greatness of Chinese culture.
So, Chinese have the privilage to dominate other races or nations. This belief is also culturally indoctrinated
to all chinese generations. The race of
Aria in Germany, in the other side, is of the opinion that the race of Aria is
the most honourable race that God ever created. Potential of racial conflicts
can be very dangerous if people are not aware of the urgency to create
intercultural communication to save the earth of the possible chaos and
destruction. Ethnic cleansing, which ever happenned in the darkest part of the
history of human beings, must be seriously avoided or prevented.
b.Avoid
stereotype
People of different cultural background very often
beyond their awareness give negative appreciation to the behaviour of their
counterparts. Negative generalization is
very frequently addressed to them. For
instance, Australians generally think that Chinese are greedy, aggressive, intolerant,
and also economical and asocial. The
case is also what can be partly experienced in Indonesia from the point of view
of Javanese. As to the Arabians living in Java, most Javanese thinks that they
are economical, religious, and are proud of their ancestors. This description
explains that stereotype is not the right thing to follow. This negative
generalization of ethnical
characteristics is entirely bias. When we try to communicate personally to
people of different ethnical background, it turns out that such generalization
is not correct. Therefore, it is
factually false to communicate to people while having the stereotype in our
mind. Positive thinking is the best
capital to begin interpersonal and intercultural communication.
c. Understanding World View
Perhaps it is not simple to give definition about
what is really meant by world view. Giving description and some concrete
examples can make this discussion more efficient. World view is related to those things like
cultural orientation towards God, mankind, nature, universe, and some other
philosophical issues concerning the concept of creation. Briefly, world view can help us to know our
position and our strata in universe.
World view is eternal and trancendent. It is the
fundamental basis of culture. Moslems, of course, have a different world view
compared to Chatholics, Christians,
and Jews, to mention a few.
American Indians have the belief that human-beings
are a part of universe. They cannot be seperated. They exist in partnership. They
are naturally in unity. It is their world view. On the contrary, Euro-Americans
have the belief that human beings are the centre of universe. They are
superior. Universe is theirs. They are seperated to each other starting from
their creation. Nature and universe can
be explored and exploite for the benefit of human beings.
Our understanding about world view can help us to
communicate more wisely to different
people with different world views.
d. Understanding belief system, normative
values, and attitude
Belief, such as religon often fail to create peace
among its confessors or followers. This
happens not because of the teachings of the religion but because of their
misinterpretation about the substance of the religious teachings. In some parts
of the world many people treat their religion so exclusively that makes big
communication gap with other followers of
different religions. This makes
interactions among them under high tension, prejudices, and in the end can
create serious social conflicts. In
islamic world, different practices of ritual worships (like what is taught in
fiqh /islamic legal jurisprudence) very frequently trigger social conlict. Less
understanding towards others’ belief potentially can result in less
intercultural communication. We also know that conflicts among different
religion followers have occurred almost in all parts of the world. This is the
worst fact and reality showing the lowest spirit of intercultural communication
among human beings. Allah has stated in
the holy Qur’an that He created human
beings in different genders, namely males and females, different tribes
and nations to interact to each other. He, then stated that the most honourable
human beings in the face of Allah are those having the strongest belief in
Allah.
To develop intercultural communication we shoud
appreciate whatever the belief of others. Confessing a certain religion is
everyone’s right. There is no prevelege for someone to force someone else to
confess a certain religion. Even Allah
gives freedom for all human beings to follow and believe in His teachings or
deny them. It is obvious that Allah wants us to live in a harmony. No
discrimantion, no conflict, no war among human beings. That is why the core of religious teachings of
revelations given to all His messangers, is always about great moralism (akhlaqul karimah). Having akhlaqul karimah as the most important
quality of everyone’s personality, makes interactions among human beings in all
over the world peaceful and more humanistic.
No hatred, no anger, no radicalism, and no war that make social
conflicts.
The most spectacular example for the above
description is in the golden era of the country;, named Madinah Al Munawwarah
(the Glittering Madinah or Megapolic Madinah).
The leader of this prosperous and peaceful country was Muhammad, the
last messanger of Allah. The population
of Madinah were mostly Christians and Jews.
Interestingly, the leader of this country was a moslem. Muhammad, was
famous for his justice, intellectuality, humbility, and care to all his
citizens and residents. Under his leadership all people in Madinah lived in
prosperity and wealth. In Madinah confessors of religions and tribes lived in
ideal harmony. They became brothers and tied in the spirit of humanism. This is basically a real practice of cross
cultural understanding and excellent public relations. Al Firdaus (2013:48-50)
says that the outstanding of Muhammad relies on his outstanding personality (akhlaqul karimah).
Multicultural
communication
In addition to the above ways to create
intercultural understanding, DuPraw and Axner give the following tips written
in their article entitled Guidelines for
Multicultural Collaboration. (DuPraw and Axner: http://www.pbs.org/ampu/crosscult.html, 12 April 2015):
·
Learn from generalizations about other
cultures, but do not use those generalizations to stereotype, "write
off," or oversimplify your ideas about another person. The best use of a
generalization is to add it to your storehouse of knowledge so that you better
understand and appreciate other interesting, multi-faceted human beings.
·
Practice, practice, practice. That is the
first rule, because it is in the doing that we actually get better at
cross-cultural communication.
·
Do not assume that there is one right way
(yours!) to communicate. Keep questioning your assumptions about the
"right way" to communicate. For example, think about your body
language; postures that indicate receptivity in one culture might indicate
aggressiveness in another.
·
Do not assume that breakdowns in
communication occur because other people are on the wrong track. Search for
ways to make the communication work, rather than searching for who should
receive the blame for the breakdown.
·
Listen actively and empathetically. Try to
put yourself in the other person's shoes. Especially when another person's
perceptions or ideas are very different from your own, you might need to
operate at the edge of your own comfort zone.
·
Respect others' choices about whether to
engage in communication with you. Honor their opinions about what is going on.
·
Stop, suspend judgment, and try to look at
the situation as an outsider.
·
Be prepared for a discussion of the past.
Use this as an opportunity to develop an understanding from "the
other's" point of view, rather than getting defensive or impatient.
Acknowledge historical events that have taken place. Be open to learning more
about them. Honest acknowledgment of the mistreatment and oppression that have
taken place on the basis of cultural difference is vital for effective
communication.
·
Awareness of current power imbalances --
and an openness to hearing each other's perceptions of those imbalances -- is
also necessary for understanding each other and working together.
·
Remember that cultural norms may not apply
to the behavior of any particular individual. We are all shaped by many, many
factors -- our ethnic background, our family, our education, our personalities
-- and are more complicated than any cultural norm could suggest. Check your
interpretations if you are uncertain what is meant.
CONCLUSION
To create ideal and productive communication among human beings on the
earth, every individual has to learn others’ cultures, tries to comprehend and
understand them as an inherent part of
life existence. Mutual interaction will only happen if every individual
has awareness that intercultural understanding is the best solution for global
communication. Diversities should not
create irrational prejudices, ethnocentrism, chauvinism and so on which cause
social conflicts.
God has created human beings differently in terms of their races, cultures,
languages, beliefs, and so forth to make life more colourful, beautiful, and
meaningful. It is in the opposite side
of natural law if human beings deny diversities and hope that human beings
should be in uniformities. A picture with one colour on its canvas cannot be
said as a real picture and surely cannot show its beauty. A beautiful picture
willy and nilly must be made of different colours!
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Al-Firdaus,
Iqra’, Kiat Public Relations Ala Nabi
Muhammad saw, Penerbit Najah, Yogyakarta, 2013
Davis,
Keith, Human Behaviour at Work: Organizational Behavior, McGraw Hill Inc,
United States of America, 1981
Mulyana,
Deddy dan Rakhmat, Jalaluddin, Komunikasi
Antarbudaya, Penerbit PT Remaja Rosdakarya, Bandung, 2010
Riyanto,
Makmun;Budi Utaminingtyas, Ririn; and Tripriyo, V.S, Komunikasi Bisnis, Politeknik UNDIP Semarang, Semarang, 1996
